Word: effective
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Dates: during 2000-2009
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Male circumcision has been shown to protect men from acquiring H.I.V. infection during sex with women - it has reduced female-to-male transmission rates by 48% to 60% in sub-Saharan Africa - but that protective effect appears less reliable among men who have sex with men, according to a new meta-analysis published Oct. 7 in the Journal of the American Medical Association (J.A.M.A...
...opposed to those who have only receptive sex or both. Millett's review suggested that among the former group, circumcision lowered H.I.V.-infection risk by 29%, a finding that also showed statistical nonsignificance. But targeting that distinct population in future studies may prove useful for distilling the specific effect of circumcision - and perhaps for future public-health strategies. "For every insertive man who is protected, there might be a receptive man who isn't infected, for the same reason why women get protected...in other words, from a herd-immunity phenomenon," says Dr. Sten Vermund, director of the Institute...
...with the 48% to 60% reduction in infection rates reported by the 2007 trials in Kenya, South Africa and Uganda that studied heterosexual men. After 1996, however, when antiretroviral (ARV) drugs turned H.I.V. into a condition that people lived with rather than died from, the protective effect of circumcision became nonsignificant, Millett found. The widespread belief that ARVs could prevent H.I.V. transmission led to an increase in risky sexual behavior, outbreaks of sexually transmitted infections and increasing rates of H.I.V., which, the study's authors say, may have diminished the relative effectiveness of male circumcision...
...urgently need a Kyoto Protocol for financial climate change with clear objectives: elaborate policies to reduce the greed-house effect and reverse the decline of ethical values. Take measures to stop and fine the emission of toxic investment funds. Promote and reward the development of sound long-term financial products. Ray Moser, LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND...
...universities serve the public good through their research and the community services they provide. Moreover, for schools with endowments smaller than that of Harvard, every donation is crucial to the growth of the institution and any move by the IRS to tax donations to universities would have a devastating effect on the educational landscape of this country. While schools with larger endowments might be able to weather such a change in policy, the inevitable disappearance of smaller schools would result in more limited access to higher education in the United States. The harm that would be caused by the removal...