Word: processes
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Dates: during 1960-1969
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...imagine how political parties might put to use the capabilities of the technological age to encourage the workings of a political democracy. One could envisage many uses of mass communications that might encourage the people to discuss the issues confronting America and take a greater part in the political process that decides those issue. The closeness of human living quarters could easily be used to encourage public discussions and massive participation. Also the bigness of bureaucratic government could easily be used to involve more people in the power structure of their government...
...reform from within seems more difficult if one considers that the parties must initiate it. For those within the system it requires a faith in the democratic process larger than their desire for political office; for eventually any system that encourages participation will encourage challenges to the ruling elite. Even starting a new party dedicated to new methods and begun with more of a reliance on the electorate would not insure that if it won acceptance and gained power the same reaction would...
Grades serve a number of functions: they establish a system of incentives for students, they structure the nature of social relations in the educational process, and they provide needed information within the outside the university. We argue that the incentive function of grades and their effect on classroom relations are inimical to learning. Furthermore, we believe that the informational role of grades could be served through alternative mechanisms which would promote, rather than hinder, learning...
Learning should take place for desirable social ends and for the intrinsic enjoyment of learning. The grading process establishes an undesirable reward structure in which obtaining a high grade becomes the motivational force. The indirect reward of a good grade replaces the direct satisfaction from the process of learning or the resulting knowledge as the final objective of many students. Such an incentive system is undesirable in and of itself...
However, the role of grades in educational institutions cannot be fully understood as long as attention is confined to the universities alone. Grades function to socialize students into the work force. On a job, workers do not obtain satisfaction from an intrinsic interest either in the process of production or in the resulting product of their work. Nor do they obtain satisfaction from the social usefulness of the product. Instead, they are motivated by the prospect of an external reward--wages received in exchange for labor power. In the workplace, the need to substitute external incentives for intrinsic interest arises...