Word: v
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Dates: during 1960-1969
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...Robert Lowery, to become the city's first Negro fire commissioner at $30,000 a year, the board of elections was offered a tentative tally on what it had cost the Lindsay people to be able to hand out such jobs-roughly $2,539,977 in campaign expenses, v. $2,451,919 in contributions. That left Lindsay's organization with more than $88,000 in bills still to pay. Just the day before, the mayor-elect had announced that he would voluntarily cut back his new salary from $50,000 to $45,000 as a "symbolic" economy gesture...
...parcel, U.S. customs agents arrested him. Minutes later, while walking to a Government car, Cone confessed; he freely gave evidence that helped earn him a five-year sentence for smuggling narcotics. Later he appealed, basing his argument on the Supreme Court's controversial 1964 decision Escobedo v. Illinois, which ruled that when investigation shifts to accusation, police must tell all suspects of their rights to silence and to counsel-and that any confession made without such warning is invalid and cannot be used against the suspect...
...Circuit v. Circuit. With those words, the judge unmistakably chose sides in the hottest debate in U.S. criminal law today. To alarmed police and prosecutors, Escobedo is a bar to using any confession in court-a practice that former New York Police Commissioner Michael J. Murphy, for example, called "essential to conviction" in 50% of the city's murders. And with no clarifying word from the Supreme Court, Escobedo has sharply divided lower courts across the country. Many take the "hard" line that a confession is inadmissible only if the suspect had a lawyer and was not allowed...
Voluntary v. Involuntary. But state courts, which handle most U.S. criminal cases, have been another matter. The Fifth Amendment was long thought not to apply to them at all. The Supreme Court did not even attack the use of coerced confessions in state courts until the 1936 case of Brown v. Mississippi, when it reversed the murder convictions of three Negroes who had confessed only after being all but lynched...
...Safeguards. More recently, two related decisions laid the groundwork for a ruling that even a voluntary confession might be inadmissible in state courts. In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Sixth Amendment right to counsel was extended to all state criminal courts. In Malloy v. Hogan (1964), the Fifth Amendment guarantee against self-incrimination was also extended to the states. As a result, the court took the next step-concluding that police interrogation itself is so crucial in prosecution, that at this stage, as well as in the courtroom, an accused's rights to silence and to counsel...